How does sympatric speciation differ from allopatric speciation?
It occurs without physical separation, often due to niche or reproductive isolation.
What is the role of enzymes in photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions, speeding up the process without being consumed.
What is the primary function of photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
Why is memory cell formation important to long term immunity?
It allows a faster and stronger response to future infections
What is the difference between antigenic drift and antigenic shift?
Drift = small mutations over time; Shift = major genetic reassortment.
How do antibodies help defend against pathogens?
They bind to antigens, neutralize them, or mark them for destruction.
What feature distinguishes hominins from other hominoids?
Bipedal locomotion (walking upright).
What usually causes a new species to form in allopatric speciation?
Geographical isolation leading to genetic divergence.
What occurs during transcription? Where does it occur?
During transcription, a segment of DNA is copied into mRNA. Nucleus.
What are the inputs and outputs of the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) in photosynthesis?
Inputs: carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH; Outputs: glucose.
What’s the main difference between the innate and adaptive immune responses?
Innate = non-specific and fast; Adaptive = specific and slower to start.
What is herd immunity?
When enough people are immune that disease spread is limited.
What is genetic drift, and in which populations is it strongest?
Random changes in allele frequencies; strongest in small populations.
How can genetically modified crops benefit agriculture? Genetically modified crops can increase productivity and provide resistance to diseases. How can recombinant plasmids be used to produce human insulin?
Recombinant plasmids can be inserted into bacteria to produce human insulin through gene expression.
How can genetically modified crops benefit agriculture?
Genetically modified crops can increase productivity and provide resistance to diseases.
What feature distinguishes primates from other mammals?
Forward-facing eyes and grasping hands
What is meant by “faunal succession”?
Fossil species appear and disappear in a predictable order over time.
What is the difference between a self and non-self antigen?
Self antigens are normal body molecules; non-self antigens come from pathogens.
How do vaccines help maintain herd immunity?
They protect individuals and reduce the number of susceptible hosts.
What do homologous structures suggest about two species?
They share a common ancestor.
Why is the human fossil record sometimes contested?
New discoveries can change how fossils are classified or interpreted.
How does stomach acid act as a chemical barrier?
It destroys pathogens with low pH.
Why are index fossils useful in dating rock layers?
They are widespread but existed for a short time, allowing correlation between layers.
How does gene flow affect genetic diversity between populations?
It increases diversity within populations but reduces differences between them.
What trend is seen in brain size from Australopithecus to Homo sapiens?
A general increase in brain size to body ratio
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Lab-made antibodies that target a specific antigen.
Why did European arrival in Australia have a devastating impact on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples?
They had no prior immunity to introduced diseases like smallpox.
What is an allergen?
A normally harmless substance that triggers an inappropriate immune response.
What is the main purpose of physical, chemical and microbiota barriers?
To prevent pathogens from entering the body.
What do vestigial structures indicate?
Evolutionary remnants of once-functional features.
How did limb proportions change as hominins became more bipedal?
Legs became longer relative to arms.
Give one example of a physical barrier in animals and one in plants.
Skin (animals) and waxy cuticle (plants).
How can environmental selection pressures change allele frequencies?
Alleles that improve survival and reproduction become more common.
How do natural killer (NK) cells destroy infected cells?
They release chemicals that cause apoptosis in infected cells
What is the overall function of cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration converts glucose into usable energy in the form of ATP.
What is the original source of new alleles in a population?
Mutations.
How can comparing DNA sequences show relatedness?
Fewer genetic differences mean more recent common ancestry.
How do C4 plants adapt to maximize photosynthesis efficiency?
C4 plants concentrate CO2 in specialized cells, minimizing photorespiration and increasing efficiency in hot environments.
What is the function of CRISPR-Cas9 in bacteria?
CRISPR-Cas9 protects bacteria by cutting foreign DNA, such as viruses.
What do helper T cells do?
They activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
What happens to enzyme function when pH changes?
Changes in pH can alter the enzyme's shape, reducing its activity or inactivating it.
What do neutrophils do?
They engulf and destroy pathogens by phagocytosis.
What do complement proteins do?
Help lyse pathogens and attract immune cells.
Name one trait all mammals share.
They produce milk to feed their young.
How do coenzymes assist in biochemical pathways?
Coenzymes transfer electrons or functional groups between molecules, aiding enzyme function.
Give an example of artificial passive immunity.
Receiving an injection of antibodies (e.g., antivenom).
What is the difference between relative and absolute dating?
Relative dating compares fossil layers; absolute dating uses radioactive decay to find an age in years.
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