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A technique that incorporates words or expressions from the SL directly into the TT without translation.
Borrowing
A technique that translates a foreign term or phrase word-for-word and structure-for-structure into the TL.
Calque
A technique where words or expressions are translated exactly, word by word.
Literal
A technique that changes the grammatical category or structure from the SL to make the translation more natural in the TL.
Transposition
A technique that shifts the focus, perspective, or cognitive category expressed in the SL to a more natural equivalent in the TL.
Modulation
A technique where meaning or stylistic effect from the ST is introduced in another part of the TT because it cannot be directly translated in the same position.
Compensation
A technique that replaces a term or phrase with an explanation of its appearance, function, or meaning in the TL.
Description
A technique that invents a temporary and unpredictable equivalent in the TL, typically based on context rather than direct meaning.
Discursive Creation
A technique that uses a well-known and dictionary-recognized translation of a term or phrase as its equivalent in the TL.
Established Equivalent
A technique that uses broader or more general terms in the TL to replace more specific ones from the SL.
Generalization
A technique that selects more specific or detailed terms in the TL than those used in the SL.
Particularization
A technique that replaces cultural or contextual elements in the ST with equivalents that are familiar and appropriate in the target culture.
Adaptation
A technique that alters linguistic or paralinguistic features to adapt to social or regional variation in the TL.
Variation
A technique that omits certain elements of meaning from the ST in the target version when they are considered redundant or unnecessary.
Reduction
A technique that replaces linguistic elements with paralinguistic elements (like gestures or tone) or vice versa.
Substitution
