Chomsky challenged structuralist and behaviourist views of language, introducing ideas about innate linguistic structures that led to more flexible, eclectic, l

Vocabulary was taught through isolated word lists, and grammar through explicit, detailed explanations, with little emphasis on oral communication.

Their work in cognitive science and educational psychology promoted the idea of learning as an active, developmental, and socially mediated process, supporting

It is an approach that combines techniques from various methods according to teaching contexts. Stern criticised it for lacking clear principles to guide

Because it is based on stimulus-response learning, repetitive drilling, habit formation, and reinforcement to shape correct language behaviour.

Errors are seen as natural, the teacher speaks minimally, and learners discover rules through problem-solving, fostering autonomy and self-evaluation.

Because it is aptitude-free, highly engaging, kinesthetic, and reduces stress, making it accessible and enjoyable for learners with different needs.

CLT emphasises interaction, real-world communication, authentic contexts, and developing communicative competence. It emerged because audio-lingual drills did n

Through structured question-and-answer exchanges, intensive oral practice, and constant interaction conducted exclusively in the target language.

Students repeated model sentences provided by the teacher in fixed patterns. Correct responses received positive reinforcement, while errors received negative f

Lessons include introduction, concert sessions (active and passive), elaboration, and production. Music and a relaxed atmosphere lower anxiety and facilitate ac

The Direct Method uses only the target language, teaches grammar inductively, focuses on speaking and listening, and promotes everyday vocabulary and oral inter