It is a method focused on grammar rules, vocabulary lists, and translation between the mother tongue and target language. It dominated because it aligned with t

Vocabulary was taught through isolated word lists, and grammar through explicit, detailed explanations, with little emphasis on oral communication.

Humanistic approaches emphasised the teacher’s charisma, learners’ emotional well-being, personal expression, and the creation of a supportive, student-centred

James Asher developed TPR. Its principles include learning through listening before speaking, physical responses to commands, stress-free learning, and parallel

It is an approach that combines techniques from various methods according to teaching contexts. Stern criticised it for lacking clear principles to guide

Their work in cognitive science and educational psychology promoted the idea of learning as an active, developmental, and socially mediated process, supporting

Errors are seen as natural, the teacher speaks minimally, and learners discover rules through problem-solving, fostering autonomy and self-evaluation.

H. H. Stern was a scholar of language pedagogy who advocated studying the history of language teaching to gain perspective on current practices and to guide

The Direct Method uses only the target language, teaches grammar inductively, focuses on speaking and listening, and promotes everyday vocabulary and oral inter

Lessons include introduction, concert sessions (active and passive), elaboration, and production. Music and a relaxed atmosphere lower anxiety and facilitate ac

Chomsky challenged structuralist and behaviourist views of language, introducing ideas about innate linguistic structures that led to more flexible, eclectic, l

Because it is based on stimulus-response learning, repetitive drilling, habit formation, and reinforcement to shape correct language behaviour.

Because it is aptitude-free, highly engaging, kinesthetic, and reduces stress, making it accessible and enjoyable for learners with different needs.